Saturday, August 31, 2019

Aids Funding For Africa And Other Countries

The HIV/AIDS epidemic is a serious problem besetting the whole world. However, there is no other region in the world that could equal the sheer number and severity of the AIDS problem in Africa. The situation of AIDS victims in the region makes Africa deserving of help from the more fortunate nations in the world that are not hit as badly as the Africans, such as the United States.There are basically three reasons underlying Africa’s need for funding from other states. First, the number of AIDS victims in Africa is staggering. This reason alone is sufficient to arouse from people a compulsion to help. Basic notions of humanity and compassion dictate that those who are better situated and are able to help provide whatever assistance they can to those in need.Second, the situation in Africa is getting worse, not only for those who are actually afflicted by the disease, but also for their children. There is a growing number of orphans in Africa who desperately need help because t hey lost their parents to AIDS.Third, Africa is in no shape to solve this problem on its own. Almost all its countries are weighed down by the disease; and they have no resources to fund research on, and treatment of, the disease.Main BodyThe African SituationAfrica is the region most badly hit by the AIDS phenomenon. Compared to the number of victims in the United States, which only reached a little over 1 million in the year 2003 (A Glance, 2006), the number in Sub-Saharan Africa reached about 25 million at the end of 2005.Worse, it is approximated that about 2.7 million more infections occurred during that year. The number of deaths in the region is also devastating, reaching a total of about 2 million in the same year. (Kanabus & Fredriksson-Bass, 2006).The prevalence rates of HIV vary among the countries in Africa. Some are very much higher than others.   Among the countries that have the lowest prevalence rate are Somalia and Senegal, which is under 1% of the adult populatio n.Another country with relatively low prevalence rate is Nigeria, despite its being the country with the highest population in Sub-Saharan Africa, with only 3.9% in 2005. However, numbers are creeping up in the said country, as already â€Å"around 2.9 million Nigerians are estimated to be living with HIV.†On the other side of the spectrum, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and Zimbabwe registered the highest adult HIV prevalence rates, reaching 24.1%, 23.2%, 33.4% and 20.1%, repectively. (Kanabus & Fredriksson-Bass, 2006).AIDS OrphansAnother grave problem facing Africa today is the number of children who are being orphaned because of AIDS. Although the whole world shares the weight of the 15 million children below 18 who have lost a parent to AIDS, Africa is again the region most badly hit by the situation.Africa is home to more than 12 million of these orphaned children, and it is predicted that this number will reach approximately 15.7 million by the year 2010 in Sub-Saharan Af rica alone.The gravity of the situation in Sub-Saharan Africa, where â€Å"children who have been orphaned by AIDS comprise half or more of all orphans nationally,† is manifested in the mere number of children who have been orphaned in 2005. (AIDS Orphans).South Africa has the most number of AIDS orphans, with 1,200,000 of them in 2005, while Malawi has the lowest population of orphans, with only 550,000. It would be noted that this smallest population of orphans of 550,000 is still a lot, and this in no way implies that the problem is less pressing in Malawi. (AIDS Orphans).The biggest crisis involving AIDS orphans consist in the emotional impact of deaths of their parents on the children. Negative changes are sure to be experienced, such as emotional neglect and trauma, occurring long before they are actually orphaned.For example, studies in Uganda show that high levels of psychological distress, manifested by feelings of anxiety, depression and anger, are common children w ho have been orphaned by AIDS. More fundamentally, the loss of a parent can lead to the subsequent loss of basic needs, such as food, shelter and education.Foreign FundingThe situation in Africa can be improved through the support of other countries and world organizations, particularly in funding. Africa has no sufficient resources to support anti-AIDS campaign on its own. Money, infrastructures and human resources are needed to form an effective HIV prevention and treatment program in the region.Unfortunately, these factors are not sufficiently developed in Africa. Therefore, foreign funding plays an important role in helping Africa combat its problem of AIDS. (Kanabus & Fredriksson-Bass, 2006).Funding to low-income countries, such as Africa, is sourced from only four streams: donations from national governments, major multilateral funding organizations, the private sector and domestic spending. With the other streams being unavailable, donations from foreign governments remain th e only viable source of resources for Africa.The United States is one of the biggest providers of funds in the fight against AIIDS. The American initiative consists mainly of the PEPFAR, or the President's Emergency Plan For AIDS Relief, which is a five-year commitment to donate $15 million to regions that are heavily beset by the AIDS epidemic. (Funding the Fight).ConclusionAfrica is the country that is most hit by the AIDS epidemic. The devastating effects of the said disease have led to other problems such as the psychological trauma caused on children who have been orphaned because of AIDS, who are growing in number through the years.With Africa lacking in much-needed resources, foreign funding from rich countries, such as the United States, remain its only hope in dealing with, and combating this deadly disease.ReferencesA Glance at the HIV/AIDS Epidemic. (2006). Retrieved December 1, 2006, from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/facts heets/At-A-Glance.htmAIDS Orphans. Retrieved December 1, 2006, from http://www.avert.org/aidsorphans.htmFunding the Fight Against AIDS. Retrieved December 1, 2006, from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.avert.org/aidsmoney.htmKanabus, A. & Fredriksson-Bass, J. (2006). HIV & AIDS in Africa. Pembrey, G. Ed. Retrieved   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   December 1, 2006, from http://www.avert.org/aafrica.htma

Friday, August 30, 2019

Address Resolution Protocol

————————————————- Address Resolution Protocol The  Address Resolution Protocol  (ARP) is a  computer networking  protocol for determining a network host's link layer or hardware address when only its  Internet Layer  (IP) or  Network Layer  address is known. This function is critical in local area networking as well as for routing internetworking traffic across gateways (routers) based on  IP addresses  when the next-hop router must be determined. ARP was defined by  RFC 826  in 1982. [1]  It is  Internet Standard  STD 37. ARP has been implemented in many types of networks, such as  Internet Protocol  (IP) network,  CHAOS,  DECNET, Xerox  PARC Universal Packet,  Token Ring,  FDDI,  IEEE 802. 11  and other  LAN  technologies, as well as the modern high capacity networks, such as  Asynchronous Transfer Mode  (ATM). Due to the overwhelming prevalence of  IPv4  and Ethernet in general networking, ARP is most frequently used to translate  IPv4 addresses  into Ethernet  MAC addresses. In the next generation Internet Protocol,  IPv6, ARP's functionality is provided by the  Neighbor Discovery Protocol  (NDP). ———————————————— Overview and IPv4-plus-Ethernet example Consider a LAN where machines using IPv4 over Ethernet wish to communicate. A sender wishes to send a message to some other machine on the LAN and knows a destination IPv4 address. The destination IPv4 address is hopefully associated with some appropriate network interface belonging to the recipient machine, and is present on the LAN. But in order for communication to succeed, the sending machine  first needs to discover the ethernet MAC address of the intended recipient network interface. This requirement comes about because Ethernet hardware does not (necessarily) understand IPv4 protocols or IPv4 addresses in the sense that Ethernet hardware ‘listens out for' relevant Ethernet MAC addresses but does not ‘listen out for' IPv4 addresses. (An impractical alternative would be to have all units listen to every Ethernet packet and inspect the contents for relevant IPv4 addresses, discarding the packets that are intended for other devices, but this would be very inefficient. ) So before sending an IPv4 packet, the sender sends a roadcast message onto the LAN using ARP in order to discover the Ethernet MAC address of some interface that is listening for that desired target IPv4 address. Some appropriate unit replies that it has a network interface with a certain MAC address that is associated with the IPv4 address in question. The original would-be sender now has the information needed and can go ahead and send its IPv4 packet to the destination inserting it int o an Ethernet frame with the correct destination MAC address for the appropriate recipient. The sender's operating system also stores the newly discovered MAC address in a table (‘caches' the result). This table of mappings from IPv4 addresses to MAC addresses is retained and consulted again and again, so the ARP discovery procedure only has to be performed one time, when a packet is sent to a ‘new' destination IPv4 address. ————————————————- Operating scope The Address Resolution Protocol is a low level request and answer protocol that is communicated on the media access level of the underlying network. For  Ethernet  systems, an ARP message is the payload of Ethernet packets. ARP therefore operates only across the local link that a host is connected to. Within the framework of the  Internet Protocol Suite, this characteristic makes ARP a  Link Layer  protocol. [2] ARP is also very often discussed in terms of the  Open Systems Interconnect  (OSI)  networking model, because that model addresses hardware-to-software interfaces more explicitly and is preferred by some equipment manufacturers. However, ARP was not developed based on the design principles and strict encapsulation hierarchy of this model and, therefore, such discussions create a number of conflicts as to the exact operating layer within this model. Most often ARP is placed into the  Data Link Layer  (Layer 2), but since it requires the definitions of network addresses of the  Network Layer, it is not unusual to find it referenced at that layer. An example of use in OSI networking, is ATMARP, used to resolve  Asynchronous Transfer Mode  (ATM)  NSAP  addresses in IP over ATM deployments. ————————————————- Packet structure The  Address Resolution Protocol  uses a simple message format that contains one address resolution request or response. The size of the ARP message depends on the upper layer and lower layer address sizes, which are given by the type of networking protocol (usually  IPv4) in use and the type of hardware or virtual link layer that the upper layer protocol is running on. The message header specifies these types, as well as the size of addresses of each. The message header is completed with the operation code for request (1) and reply (2). The payload of the packet consists of four addresses, the hardware and protocol address of the sender and receiver hosts. The principal packet structure of ARP packets is shown in the following table which illustrates the case of IPv4 networks running on Ethernet. In this scenario, the packet has 48-bit fields for the sender hardware address (SHA) and target hardware address (THA), and 32-bit fields for the corresponding sender and target protocol addresses (SPA and TPA). Thus, the ARP packet size in this case is 28 bytes. Hardware type (HTYPE) This field specifies the Link Layer protocol type. Example: Ethernet is 1. Protocol type (PTYPE) This field specifies the upper layer protocol for which the ARP request is intended. For example, Internet Protocol (IPv4) is encoded as 0x0800. Hardware length (HLEN) Length (in  octets) of a hardware address. Ethernet addresses size is 6. Protocol length (PLEN) Length (in octets) of a  logical address  of the specified protocol (cf. PTYPE). IPv4 address size is 4. Operation Specifies the operation that the sender is performing: 1 for request, 2 for reply. Sender hardware address (SHA) Hardware (MAC) address of the sender. Sender protocol address (SPA) Upper layer protocol address of the sender. Target hardware address (THA) Hardware address of the intended receiver. This field is ignored in requests. Target protocol address (TPA) Upper layer protocol address of the intended receiver. ARP protocol parameter values have been standardized and are maintained by  IANA Internet Protocol (IPv4) over Ethernet ARP packet| bit offset| 0 – 7| 8 – 15| 0| Hardware type (HTYPE)| 16| Protocol type (PTYPE)| 32| Hardware address length (HLEN)| Protocol address length (PLEN)| 48| Operation (OPER)| 64| Sender hardware address (SHA) (first 16 bits)| 80| (next 16 bits)| 96| (last 16 bits)| 112| Sender protocol address (SPA) (first 16 bits)| 128| (last 16 bits)| 144| Target hardware address (THA) (first 16 bits)| 160| (next 16 bits)| 76| (last 16 bits)| 192| Target protocol address (TPA) (first 16 bits)| 208| (last 16 bits)| ————————————————- ARP probe An  ARP probe  is an ARP request constructed with an all-zero  sender IP address. The term is used in the  IPv4 Addre ss Conflict Detection  specification (RFC 5227). Before beginning to use an IPv4 address (whether received from manual configuration, DHCP, or some other means), a host implementing this specification must test to see if the address is already in use, by broadcasting ARP probe packets. ————————————————- ARP announcements ARP may also be used as a simple announcement protocol. This is useful for updating other host's mapping of a hardware address when the sender's IP address or MAC address has changed. Such an announcement, also called a  gratuitous ARP  message, is usually broadcast as an ARP request containing the sender's protocol address (SPA) in the target field (TPA=SPA), with the target hardware address (THA) set to zero. An alternative is to broadcast an ARP reply with the sender's hardware and protocol addresses (SHA and SPA) duplicated in the target fields (TPA=SPA, THA=SHA). An ARP announcement is not intended to solicit a reply; instead it updates any cached entries in the ARP tables of other hosts that receive the packet. The operation code may indicate a request or a reply because the ARP standard specifies that the opcode is only processed after the ARP table has been updated from the address fields. [4][5][6] Many operating systems perform gratuitous ARP during startup. That helps to resolve problems which would otherwise occur if, for example, a network card was recently changed (changing the IP-address-to-MAC-address mapping) and other hosts still have the old mapping in their ARP caches. Gratuitous ARP is also used by some interface drivers to effect load balancing for incoming traffic. In a team of network cards, it is used to announce a different MAC address within the team that should receive incoming packets. ARP announcements can be used to defend  link-local  IP addresses in the  Zeroconf  protocol (RFC 3927), and for IP address takeover within  high-availability clusters. ————————————————- ARP mediation ARP mediation  refers to the process of resolving Layer 2 addresses when different resolution protocols are used on multiple connected circuits, e. . , ATM on one end and Ethernet on the others. ————————————————- Inverse ARP and Reverse ARP The  Inverse Address Resolution Protocol  (Inverse ARP or InARP), is a protocol used f or obtaining  Network Layer  addresses (e. g. ,  IP addresses) of other nodes from  Data Link Layer(Layer 2) addresses. It is primarily used in  Frame Relay  (DLCI) and ATM networks, in which Layer 2 addresses of  virtual circuits  are sometimes obtained from Layer 2 signaling, and the corresponding Layer 3 addresses must be available before these virtual circuits can be used. As ARP translates Layer 3 addresses to Layer 2 addresses, InARP may be described as its inverse. In addition, InARP is actually implemented as a protocol extension to ARP. It uses the same packet format from ARP; but has different operation codes. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol  (Reverse ARP or RARP), like InARP, also translates Layer 2 addresses to Layer 3 addresses. However, while in InARP the requesting station is querying the Layer 3 address of another node, RARP is used to obtain the Layer 3 address of the requesting station itself for address configuration purposes. RARP is now obsolete. It was replaced by  BOOTP, which was later superseded by the  Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol  (DHCP). ————————————————- Proxy ARP Proxy ARP  (Address Resolution Protocol) is a technique by which a device on a given network answers the  ARP  queries for a  network address  that is not on that network. The ARP Proxy is aware of the location of the traffic's destination, and offers its own MAC address in reply, effectively saying, â€Å"send it to me, and I'll get it to where it needs to go. Serving as an ARP Proxy for another host effectively directs LAN traffic to the Proxy. The â€Å"captured† traffic is then typically routed by the Proxy to the intended destination via another interface or via a  tunnel. The process which results in the node responding with its own MAC address to an ARP request for a different IP address for proxying purposes is sometimes referred to as ‘publishing'. ————————————————- Uses Below are some typical uses for proxy ARP: Joining a broadcast LAN with  serial  links (e. g. ,  dialup  or  VPN  connections). Assume an Ethernet broadcast domain (e. g. , a group of stations connected to the same hub) using a certain IPv4 address range (e. g. , 192. 168. 0. 0/24, where 192. 168. 0. 1 – 192. 168. 0. 127 are assigned to wired nodes). One or more of the nodes is an  access router  accepting dialup or VPN connections. The access router gives the dial-up nodes IP addressses in the range 192. 168. 0. 128 – 192. 168. 0. 254; for this example, assume a dial-up node gets IP address 192. 168. 0. 254. The access router uses Proxy ARP to make the dial-up node present in the subnet without being wired into the Ethernet: he access server ‘publishes' its own MAC address for 192. 168. 0. 254. Now, when another node wired into the Ethernet wants to talk to the dial-up node, it will ask on the network for the MAC address of 192. 168. 0. 254 and find the access server's MAC address. It will therefore send its IP packets to the access server, and the access server will know to pass them on to the particular dial-up node. All dial-up nodes therefore appear to the wired Ethernet nodes as if they are wired into the same Ethernet subnet. Taking multiple addresses from a LAN Assume a station (e. g. , a server) with an interface (10. 0. 0. 2) connected to a network (10. 0. 0. 0/24). Certain applications may require multiple IP addresses on the server. Provided the addresses have to be from the 10. 0. 0. 0/24 range, the way the problem is solved is through Proxy ARP. Additional addresses (say, 10. 0. 0. 230-10. 0. 0. 240) are  aliased  to the  loopbackinterface of the server (or assigned to special interfaces, the latter typically being the case with  VMware/UML/jails/vservers/other virtual server environments) and ‘published' on the 10. . 0. 2 interface (although many operating systems allow direct allocation of multiple addresses to one interface, thus eliminating the need for such tricks). On a firewall In this scenario a firewall can be configured with a single IP address. One simple example of a use for this would be placing a firewall in front of a single host or group of hosts on a subnet. Example- A network (10. 0. 0. 0/8) has a serve r which should be protected (10. 0. 0. 20) a proxy-arp firewall can be placed in front of the server. In this way the server is put behind a firewall without making any changes to the network at all. Mobile-IP In case of  Mobile-IP  the Home Agent uses Proxy ARP in order to receive messages on behalf of the Mobile Node, so that it can forward the appropriate message to the actual mobile node's address (Care Of Address). Transparent subnet gatewaying A setup that involves two physical segments sharing the same IP subnet and connected together via a  router. This use is documented in  RFC 1027 ————————————————- Advantages The advantage of Proxy ARP over other networking schemes is simplicity. A network can be extended using this technique without the knowledge of the upstream router. For example, suppose a host, say A, wants to contact another host B, where B is on a different subnet/broadcast domain than A. For this, host A will send an  ARP  request with a Destination IP address of B in its ARP packet. The multi-homed router which is connected to both the subnets, responds to host A's request with its MAC address instead of host B's actual  MAC  address, thus proxying for host B. In the due course of time, when host A sends a packet to the router which is actually destined to host B, the router just forwards the packet to host B. The communication between host A and B is totally unaware of the router proxying for each other. ————————————————- Disadvantages Disadvantage of Proxy ARP include scalability (ARP resolution is required for every device routed in this manner) and reliability (no fallback mechanism is present, and masquerading can be confusing in some environments). It should be noted that ARP manipulation techniques, however, are the basis for protocols providing  redundancy  on broadcast networks (e. g. ,Ethernet), most notably  CARP  and  Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol. Proxy ARP can create DoS attacks on networks if misconfigured. For example a misconfigured router with proxy ARP has the ability to receive packets destined for other hosts (as it gives its own MAC address in response to ARP requests for other hosts/routers), but may not have the ability to correctly forward these packets on to their final destination, thus blackholing the traffic.

Thursday, August 29, 2019

Binary Phase Shift Keying BPSK Modulation Demodulation Computer Science Essay

Binary Phase Shift Keying BPSK Modulation Demodulation Computer Science Essay This experiment is based on the Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) modulation/demodulation technique. The aim of the experiment is to gain familiarity with the components of a simple data transmission system, gain experience using an experimental communication system and studying its performance under the influence of white noise and also, to compare experimental results with theoretical deductions. Bandpass modulation, of which BPSK is a type, is a process whereby, a sinusoid usually called a carrier wave, is modulated or have its characteristics changed by a digital pulse baseband signal in other to enable wireless based transmission. In BPSK modulation, the phase of the carrier waveform is shifted to either 0Â ° or 180Â ° by the modulating data signal. To effectively model the transmission channel, the AWGN generator is used which adds the effect of noise to the signal at the receiver in other to properly characterise what obtains in real systems. SNR measurements are taken after the noise is added before the receiver and results of each stage of the experiment are presented. 2.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results obtained from the experiment and brief discussions are now presented. 2.1 The frequency of the waveform was measured to be 1.493kHz 2.2 The amplitude of the waveform was measured to be 3.608V 2.3 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGADesktopLAB RESULTSPart 2.bmp Fig. 1: Square Waveform from NE555 timer circuit. The timer circuit produces a sequence of ones and zeros which together with the resistors and capacitor, produces a square waveform. It can be observed that the square top and bottom are not perfectly straight but with ripples, this is due to the resonance effect presented by the capacitor. Also, the rising pattern of the top is due to the voltage rise time in the capacitor. 2.4 The frequency of the message sequence is measured to be 374Hz 2.5 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordPart 4 5.bmp Fig. 2: M essage sequence at the output of the frequency divider. The SN74LS74 integrated circuit implements a second order frequency divider, 2n (n=2). Hence the frequency of the timer circuit is divided by four. Hence, this is also evident in the frequency of the message sequence in 2.4 above. 2.6 The cut-off frequency of the 2nd order Butterworth low pass filter is given by; The cut-off frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude of the transfer function drops to 0.7071 of its maximum value which represents the point at which the power in the circuit is 3dB less than the maximum value. 2.7 The frequency of the sinusoid at the output of the filter was measured to be 1.328kHz. 2.8 C:Documents and SettingsAGEBNIGALocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.Wordpart 8.jpg Fig. 3: Output of the first and second Butterworth LPF. A B A – Output of first filter; B – Output of second filter The Butterworth lowpass filter is used to generate the sinusoidal carrier required for the baseband signal. The Butterworth filter has a gentle roll-off, has no ripple in the pass or stop band hence, it has a monotonic response. To maximise the smoothness of the sinusoid, we use two of such filters in series.

Wednesday, August 28, 2019

Q1 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Q1 - Assignment Example However, the insurance companies will have to provide coverage to every individual, without limit even to those with pre-existing health conditions. This process has been termed unconstitutional by US state supreme courts, arguing that the Americans should not be forced into health care coverage. Whether or not the bill solves the issue of health care as a privilege depends on the general implication of implementing the bill. The bill is likely to throw away individual mandate if implemented. What this means for the healthcare industry is that the pricing policies in the industry are prone to enormous changes that may not end up favoring the end user of the health insurance. Individual mandate provides a constant and a large pool of insurance coverage purchasers. In this regard, repealing the individual mandate is likely to increase American health insurance premiums. It is important to point out that the Americans who will be without insurance cover will opt to make use of emergency rooms as their healthcare procedure. As a result, the accrued costs from emergency rooms procedure will be shifted to the insured. The law’s purpose is to extend health insurance coverage to the American community. However, the law is prone to failure in the context of the high insurance premiums. This bill therefore, and the resultant law therein may not solve the health care issue as anticipated. The new health care bill has taken ethical and legal turns, with its applicability and benefit to the American society questioned. The Americans are expected to be health insured by the year 2014. Violation of this law will attract penalties as outlined in the law. However, the entire process has been termed unethical, because the law seeks to force people to comply. Freedoms of choice are hereby violated. The insurance companies will also be forces to cover all individuals, those with pre-existing

Tuesday, August 27, 2019

Social Class systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Social Class systems - Essay Example Studies conducted show that forty two percent of men born in the bottom five social classes stay that way when they become adults. To add to the figures, just eight percent of Americans born at the bottom, rise to the top. From this figures it is safe to argue that contrary to popular belief, America is in fact a caste social system. There are various reasons for this argument, the first being that the country has a thin safety net to cushion children from poverty, therefore less class mobility. We find that in most poor children are raised by single parents, a factor which increases poverty levels. This is compounded, by racial discrimination which leaves most people of color, especially African Americans vulnerable and poor, compared to the other races. The second reason is that in our society, education is enables one to get a higher salary. This leaves people from poor families at a disadvantage because upper income parents invest more in their children’s education to increase their chances of success in life. The children of the high income earners go to the best schools and are prepared to learn. It is safe to argue that most people at the top are there due to their backgrounds, more than merit. Ours is therefore a system of the poor remaining poor and the other way round. The kind of education you get how the police treat you and even who you get married to, is largely influenced by your social

Monday, August 26, 2019

Summary and implications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Summary and implications - Essay Example Expected sales for Eliquis for 2012 is projected to reach $395 million (Loftus , par 2). Because of the delay in the decision of the FDA, Bristol-Myers and Pfizer might experience a decline in their sales projections which might also affect its stock prices which have gone up in the past few days at the New York Stock Exchange. The FDA justified their move by stating that the additional data submitted needs more time to review (Loftus , par 6). The original date for the decision should have been March 28 (Loftus , par 11). Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH and Johnson & Johnson, other manufacturers of new anticlotting drugs, may consider this a favorable development because it gives them time to establish their products in the market while the competition is not yet there. This means that the company may have to adjust their sales projections because it will mean a decline in their projected sales. If the launch of the product will be delayed by three months, it means that whatever projected sales for those three months will not be realized. The delay in the decision on Eliquis is good news for Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH and Johnson & Johnson. They can launch a more aggressive marketing strategy for their anticlotting drugs so that when the time comes that the FDA approves Eliquis, they have already saturated the market and may have gained loyal customers already. For the pharmaceutical industry, this should be perceived as a caveat in submitting drugs for approval of the FDA. They should make sure that all data that they submit are complete so that there will be no need for amendments later on. It will also serve as a warning to other pharmaceutical companies who intend to manufacture new anticlotting drugs that the FDA is very much concerned about bleeding risks for all patient types. In one’s opinion, the move of the FDA to delay the decision on Eliquis is good because it shows that it is concerned about the effects of the drug

Sunday, August 25, 2019

Rucial Role in Shaping the Life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Rucial Role in Shaping the Life - Essay Example Unfortunately, my mother succumbed to cancer when I was only six years old, and I only understood what happened to her when I was in middle school. Hence, I had to do many things that my mother would have done for me due to the absence of my father and elder brother. For instance, I visited the doctor on my own and many other things I did by myself. Over time, little things that I did on my own built my personality, and it was only in the second year of my high school that the final stroke hit me after my brother was diagnosed of cancer. Effectively, my brother's two-year illness made me a different person despite having learned how to live on own for many years. Following my brother’s diagnosis of cancer, my life changed and became completely different. I realized that I became quick to anger, but I did not show the anger, and neither did I know the cause of the anger. In addition, I was always in pain and moody although I did not show my father this side of my personality. Importantly, I never lost faith since I continued praying for my brother who was always there for me despite his condition. When I had questions, my brother would always respond to my questions each time. During the time he experienced incidents of pain, my brother remained positive throughout the pain. Effectively, I learned the importance of a positive attitude in life, and I inculcated a positive personality that has helped me achieve milestones. In addition, I discovered the importance of avoiding anger, being moody, and being sad since these factors depicted a feeling of fear and made an individual weak. Moreover, speaking to people whom I trusted helped me ch ange to a better person that I am today. As I said, my life was similar to a movie since most movies depict challenging and unbelievable situations that happen to unlikely people.Today, my brother remains the biggest inspiration since he always saw the light at the tunnel and he walked me through the journey of identifying this light with him, which was instrumental in life. To quote my brother, â€Å"Everything will be fine in the end. If it will not be fine, then it is not the end.† I do not know where the quote came from, but the quote is helpful in time of despair.

Research Methodological Approaches Applied In Academic Journal Essay

Research Methodological Approaches Applied In Academic Journal Articles - Essay Example This paper illustrates that researchers of all levels wrestle with the problem of developing an appropriate methodology for their studies. A research methodology is not the only critical component of academic development but a robust research practice that gives direction to every research done in any given field of study. To be certain, it is indeed a critical aspect of social sciences, more specifically in business and management that requires specific approaches in order to achieve implementable target objectives. This essay endeavors to analyze and compare the main research methodological approaches, which include quantitative, qualitative and multiple methods, applied in academic journal articles. First, these approaches are going to be discussed with regards to their underlying philosophies and paradigms, explaining their relationship between theory and research in terms of deductive and inductive approaches, focusing on research design and data collection. Secondly, the resear ch will analyze the application of quantitative and qualitative research approaches in academic journal articles, illustrating their main strengths and weaknesses of each approach. Finally, the essay will summarize by pointing out the finding of the entire research undertaken. An important feature of any academic research in itself, mapping out the literature involves articulate analysis of previous studies, subsequently using the same as a basis of pointing the knowledge gap in the given fields of study. Broadly, a literature search is but ‘a systemic process that aims at identifying and collating the existing body of knowledge on a particular topic’. The aim of a literature review, as Lings and Lee indicate, is to show acquaintance with existing work in the given field and provide insights into the work under study. Among other things, an effective literature review critically analyses the materials under study, synthesizes them with respect to relevance, into providi ng the reader with the useful insights.

Saturday, August 24, 2019

The Key Agent of Socialization Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Key Agent of Socialization - Assignment Example Therefore, as a young adult, they taught me to be free and to view everyone as equal and friendly. The inter-gender interaction was not frowned upon, and we could play with our neighbors freely. In addition, I learned to respect my elders but not to be mistreated just because I am a kid, therefore, I should do as told. I could question some aspects of life that my parents took upon themselves to explain why some things had to be done without questioning. The story is different with my grandfather; aged eighty-seven. During his time as a young parent, all parents were more like dictators. They shared the same parenting skills, and could command everything to be done without questioning. The children during their time were not allowed to question their parents; hence, they followed everything to the latter without raising an eyebrow. When it comes to inter-gender interaction, boys were only allowed to play with boys and so were girls. They only interacted with each other after they were deemed to have matured, as young adults. This was quite a contrast to how I was raised during a period considered as the ‘digital

Friday, August 23, 2019

Media industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Media industry - Essay Example (Ross 2004). The situation is not very different in the advertising industry, as we will see in the discussion on the industry. Women in British Media: Many media commentators described the 1990s as the decade of women. The (then) Conservative government in Britain initiated affirmative action to employ women in large numbers in all sectors including the media industry. There was an apprehension that there would not be enough female graduates to fill job demand. In 1990, three women were actually appointed as editors of national newspapers. This is not to say that the atmosphere of gender discrimination has totally changed. Soft Jobs and the Fair Sex: Even in the allocation of routine jobs, there is a gender divide. By convention men journalists covered news stories concerning politics, crime, finance, education and upbringing; women covered 'human interest', consumer news, culture and social policy. Men covered the 'facts', 'sensation' and 'male' angles while women covered the 'background and effects', 'compassion', 'general' and 'female' angles. The sources for men were men and women were women. The ethics behind men's stories were detached while those of women's were based on social needs. (Carter 1998 36 - Adapted from table) Is it different in the U.S. ... Broadcast journalism employs 26% women as local TV news directors, 17% as local TV managers and 13% as general managers in radio stations. The silver lining of the situation according to Byerly is that many male journalists today identify with feminism and "indeed, have taken their feminist colleagues' side to protest sexist news coverage as well as to demand more egalitarian newsroom policies." (Byerly 2004 113) And Internationally : The situation is not much different internationally. A survey by the International Federation of Journalists (IFJ), world's largest journalists' association, shows that the number of women journalists varies widely: from 6% in Sri Lanka to around 50% in Finland. But at higher - decision making - levels like editors, department heads and media owners, the numbers are very low and account for barely 6%. The percentage is highest (10-20) in Cyprus, Costa Rica, Mexico and Sweden. (Byerly 2004 109-126) Social Milieu and Women in Media: When we seek to analyze the levels at which women are employed by the media industry, it is important to consider the socio-political milieu in which the industry functions and the power the industry wields. This is because media too is a product of the socio-political milieu and cannot be considered in isolation. The social power of the communication (media) industries has long been recognised "as being at the heart of contemporary societies industrially, economically, politically and culturally" (Marris et. al. (eds.) 1999 13). Electronic age and the advent of the internet have added a new powerful thrust to traditional media, which primarily consisted of print media, radio and motion pictures and

Thursday, August 22, 2019

Research Method for Computing & Technology Essay Example for Free

Research Method for Computing Technology Essay 2.0 Introduction Nowadays, people prefer to look information online instead of looking at catalogue or books. For example, woman would prefer to look for sales event online instead of looking at the catalogue that delivers to the house. Not all of the household will get the mails for promotion of the month because some postman will throw the mails away as these cases had already happened according to The Star news on Sunday, 21st of July 2013. This website is proposed for user to shop and enjoy shopping easily. The main purpose of this website is to provide the information of the malls in Malaysia. The information includes sales event, performance organize by third party or particular mall, the mall map etc. There are few similar websites like www.midvalley.com.my , www.onestopmalaysia.com and www.offerstation.com. These websites only show either their own particular mall information only or sales promotion only. This website is a combine and improve version of these existing websites as there are many improvements are needed for it. Besides, it will include social function like allowing user to post comment or sharing status by using Facebook account at the sales event area so that others can read and up to date anytime instead of go to the location personally to check out the event as not people now spend most of the time working and rest at home after that. Other than that, user can check out the mall map as well so they could able to know whether the store they looking for exist in the mall. The details of the store include the location of the store in the mall, store’s telephone number and brief explanation of the store. The picture of the store entrance and the shop sign will be provided too. In conclusion, this website will act as a shopping and event guide that allow shoppers to shop smart and save on time. 3.0 Project Background I got this idea to create the website while I am looking for promotion online. There are many similar websites but the information are not complete. One of the example is user cannot post comment for the particular event which I always wanted to know what is going on the event or how is the  atmosphere there. I always hope that there is a photo sharing function under the event post. This proposed system is created for user to shop easily and hunt for sales event easily. Many people do not know when the sales will be but once they browse this website, they could easily get the information they want. As well as they have some inquiry about products or others, they may just give them a call by searching the phone number from the website. This proposed website basically act as a shopping guide for user by showing all the related information. There are some difficulties while deciding the structure of the proposed website. My idea was providing information but I was told that my course is Web Media Technology. Hence, I should include multimedia or social network. Then, I have change my idea from only information to posting up event poster, flash banner etc. User can as well as connect with Facebook and post comment at certain area. 4.0 Problem Statement The common problems that faced by shoppers are where is the location, what is the operating hours, how is the atmosphere there, what promotion is going on etc. They will spend some time to search for the information and reconsider whether it is worth to go. 4.1 Problem Description This proposed website will include information that is needed by shoppers. For instance, shopper might take some time to walk around the mall when they are not familiar with it. With this website, it could become a guide for them so they do not need to waste time walking around the mall and might end up with nothing. Besides, the information like telephone number is useful too. Shoppers do not need to worry when they face any problems about the stuffs they bought. They can just call to the store for inquiry just by only browsing this website. 5.0 Project Aim To provide users every useful information in malls. 6.0 Objective To allow users to look for the information in each mall within Malaysia. To help users to save time on shopping and shop smartly. To give more information on the events which will hold in the mall. To share the tips about the event which is going on. To provide the floor plan to user and assist them to shop. 7.0 Research Question 1. How social networks are useful for website? 2. What kind of information will be show in website? 3. What are the guidelines to help shoppers to shop easily? 4. Can the store’s telephone number be found on other websites? 5. Which methodology is suitable for this proposed project? 6. How long will it takes to develop this website? 7. Which software tools are needed to develop this website? 8. What are the functions of the software? 8.0 Project Development Plan 8.1 Domain Design The major information of my project is about shopping malls in Malaysia while the minor area is allowing social network user to post comment for the event, which will be showed if there is. My targeted domains for this project are local residents, travellers and shopaholics. One of the similar website is One Stop Malaysia. This website contains most of the information of Malaysia which are like foods, education, travel guide etc. For instance, their travel guide blog post allows visitor to post comment. The comment area is embedded with Blogspot while for my project, I will allow Facebook user to connect for posting comment so that they do not need to create account or fill in their particular details just to post a comment. To sum up this, my project contains most of the shopping information such  as malls location, sales event, performance event and so on. Visitors can post comment for the sales event. Therefore, the others can take the comment as reference. Comment like â€Å"left only big sizes† might help those who are petites, so they do not need to waste time and petrol to head over the sales event location after their working hours. This feature is specially made for visitor to share their experience or status about their shopping trip. Visitors can also share the useful tips at the comment area. Other than that, visitors also can have other information from the website such as the malls information. For example, visitor can look for the particular store location from the website. It will show the exact floor and the store telephone number as these information cannot be easily search. 8.2 Technical Design Now days, there are a lot of software development methodology such as SDLC (system development life cycle), Rapid Application Development (RAD), Agile Methodology and others. I will choose Prototyping Methodology for this project as Prototyping has more benefits for a web-based system as it is more suitable for system develop by website. Prototyping methodology is usually used for system that tends to be modified during the development of the system. By using this type of methodology, the development of it will definitely get a higher user satisfaction results because the errors are fixed when it is found during the development process. This action can actually lower down the percentage risk of failure. This methodology required to collect feedbacks from user. This could exposes developers to potential future system enhancements because they know and gained the problems feedbacks as well as bad comment. Next, the tools that I will be using for development of this project are Adobe Dreamweaver, Adobe Flash and Adobe Photoshop. All this software functions are taught by my lecturers. Therefore, I am familiar with the functions and feature from the software. I will be coding and designing the layout of the project by using Adobe Dreamweaver. It is a website development tools which has most of the features. While Adobe Photoshop is an editing software for photos and pictures. I will be using it for Posters  editing. Last but not least, Adobe Flash is for creating the banners for advertisement or greetings. I will be using it to make my project more interesting. 9.0 Data Collection Plan 9.1 Primary Data Collection Focus group would be good for carrying out the primary data collection for user requirement of the website. This technique requires a group of people that met the requirement and fulfill the criteria which is related to shopping in order to carry out a good research. These participants are required to spend some time for a short survey. This is to find out what real consumers think and what they feel according to the questions asked. After that, participants will gather around the table and start discussing some topics and provide a range or views. Participants should express their own emotions and feelings honestly and openly as the answers are all private and kept confidential. Next, the questionnaire is also an ideal technique to perform quantitative and qualitative research. This is an inexpensive way as it does not cost too much and it saves a lot of time. The questionnaires can be distribute at shopping malls and collect from shoppers after they are done for it. By showing the appreciation, a small gift like discount vouchers could be given to the shoppers and it is also a way to attract shoppers to do the questionnaire. Focus Group Discussion 1. What function do you need in malls guide and promotion website? Explain why do you need that? 2. If this website is build, how often will you browse it? 3. What kind of information do you wish to see in this website? 4. Which is your ideal similar website now? Explain why? 9.2 Secondary Data Collection There are few sources for secondary data like books, journals, website, newspaper etc. People now do more reading on internet as most of the  information can search through there. Researcher can actually read or reference the work in website to get some inspiration there. Example websites are offerstation.com, midvalley.com.my and etc. 10.0 Personal Reflection Limitations and challenges are the problems that researcher will meet during the development. Researcher has not much knowledge on building a functional website. Thus, this will be affecting process. Researcher has to look and understand the coding from websites or other projects that are done by expertise, as the information could be helpful. Studying the code and understanding them has become a challenge for me in order to complete the proposed system because I have not done any website which is linked to social networks like Facebook and Twitter. This feature requires special coding to embed them to the website. I will have to reference the other websites that has similar function. Lastly, different browsers like Firefox, Safari, Google Chrome, Opera and others have their own technical issues and structures when browsing websites. This will take some time to test the proposed website in each browser and check the problems occur. As mentioned, there are many different browsers but Google Chrome is the most common browser in market. Thus, I have choose Google Chrome for the ideal choice to build this proposed website. 11.0 Conclusion In conclusion, this proposed website is proposed to help users on shopping. There are few similar website but they have not much information. I have jotted down all the useful information which gather from other websites and will apply them to this proposed system as an enhancement. 12.0 References 1. BEH, Y. H. 2013. Thousands of undelivered mail dumped in leafy Ukay Heights ravine. [online] 21st of July. Available at: http://www.thestar.com.my/News/Nation/2013/07/21/Postmans-service-goes-downhi

Wednesday, August 21, 2019

Developing Anti-Mycobacterial Therapeutics

Developing Anti-Mycobacterial Therapeutics Using a specific example discuss a possible target for the development of anti-mycobacterial therapeutics. Introduction It is estimated 1.8 billion people worldwide are infected by tuberculosis (TB)- an infectious disease caused by the etiologic agent Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) (Fullam et al., 2012). This bacterium is responsible for 2 million deaths each year and remains a continuing threat (Ouellet, Johnston and Montellano, 2011). 70-90% of individuals infected carry latent TB and never develop the disease, on the other hand, 10-30% of individuals infected can develop active TB. Over the years, the threat of TB has increased alarmingly due to the rise of multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB). The rise of MDR-TB and XDR-TB threatens to overwhelm all currently available drugs (Yam et al., 2009). Hence, the need to develop new anti-mycobacterial therapeutics. Currently, there have been numerous potential targets identified for the development of novel inhibitors. This review focuses on Mtb DNA gyrase as one such possible target (Mdluli and Spigelman, 2006). Structure and Function of DNA Gyrase DNA gyrase is an essential tetrameric enzyme involved in DNA synthesis and is understood to be the only type II topoisomerase present in Mtb. The structure of DNA gyrase consists of two subunits called GyrA and GyrB which initially form homodimers, called A2 and B2, and then form a larger heterodimer, called A2B2. The two subunits carry out different functions with the GyrA subunit carrying out cleavage of positive supercoiled DNA, while the GyrB subunit promotes ATP hydrolysis. The GyrA and GyrB subunits are products of the gyrA gene and gyrB gene. The gyrB gene is 34 base-pairs upstream to the gyrA gene and both genes are located close to the origin of replication (Unniraman, Chatterji and Nagaraja, 2002). Mtb reproduce by binary fission. During DNA replication, DNA helicase binds to the DNA double helix and begins to unwind the parental strands by utilising ATP to break the hydrogen bonds between the base-pairs. Single-stranded binding proteins help to stabilise the unwound DNA strands and prevent them from re-pairing. The point at which the two strands of DNA separate are known as replication fork. DNA polymerase then moves along each strand of DNA behind each replication fork synthesising new DNA nucleotides. As the replication fork expands, positive supercoils begin to accumulate ahead of the replication fork. For DNA replication to continue, the positive supercoils need to be removed. Supercoiling causes the DNA to form a more compact structure. DNA gyrase inserts negative supercoils to Mtb DNA. DNA gyrase binds to a circular, supercoiled DNA molecule and this alleviates one positive supercoils. Gyrase first introduces a double-stranded break in the DNA, then a segment of DNA pass es through the break to the opposite side of the gyrase protein. This movement of the DNA requires ATP hydrolysis by gyrase, and introduces a negative supercoil into the DNA molecule. Subsequently, the break in the strands is repaired and gyrase is released from the DNA. Thus, a DNA molecule with one positive supercoil now has one negative supercoil. The GyrA subunit consists of two domains called the GyrA N-terminal domain (GyrA-NTD) and GyrA C-terminal domain (GyrA-CTD). The GyrA-NTD whereas, the GyrA-CTD stabilises the binding of DNA gyrase to DNA. The residue Tyr-122 of GyrA is the site of covalent attachment to DNA. Similarly, the GyrB subunit consists of two domains called the GyrB N-terminal domain (GyrB-NTD) and GyrB C-terminal domain (GyrB-CTD). The GyrB-NTD contains the ATP binding sites. DNA gyrase is absent in eukaryotic organisms even though a less homologous enzyme does exist. Fluoroquinolones Fluoroquinolones (FQs) bind to the enzyme-DNA complex. By targeting GyrA, the duration of treatment can be shortened making it a validated target. C-terminal Domain of GyrA  Ã‚   The ability of Mtb DNA gyrase to bind and insert negative supercoils into DNA is mediated by the C-terminal domain of the GyrA subunit (GyrA-CTD). Several highly-conserved residues in GyrA-CTD were selected as potentially participating in DNA binding and bending. The use of site-directed mutagenesis resulted in the identification of four key residues which were R691A, Y577A, R745A and D669A. Substitution of these four residues resulted in a total loss of DNA binding activity by GyrA. This in turn caused a loss in supercoiling activity and relaxation. The ability of Mtb DNA gyrase to carry out its function only occurs when the GyrA subunit is combined with the GyrB subunit. Mutagenesis of R691A, Y577A, R745A and D669A not only results in loss of DNA binding activity of GyrA in the absence of GyrB, but also results in a loss of DNA binding activity in the presence of GyrB. This again led to a loss in loss in supercoiling activity and relaxation. The findings of GyrA-CTD to be essential for Mtb survival strongly promotes the idea of a new potential drug target. GyrB Subunit of Mtb DNA Gyrase The emergence of fluoroquinolone-resistant tuberculosis has meant there is a need to develop new classes of drugs targeting Mtb DNA gyrase. A lot of emphasis is often focused on targeting the GyrA subunit and this had led to research in developing novel inhibitors targeting the GyrB subunit (Medapi et al., 2015). The GyrB subunit is an attractive target for the development of anti-mycobacterial therapeutics for several reasons. Firstly, the GyrB subunit is present in a single copy. Secondly, it is an essential gene for the survival of Mtb. Thirdly, there are no alternatives to GyrB present in Mtb which could carry out the same function if it is inhibited because it contains the ATP binding pocket. Fourthly, the various strains of Mtb have a 99.9% homology for GyrB. Fifthly, GyrB exerts the same phenotypic effects on Mtb viability as FQs. Finally, the development of inhibitors targeting GyrB can be effective in shortening the duration of TB treatment and delaying the emergence of drug resistance (Chopra et al., 2012). The residues involved in ATP binding are found in the GyrB-NTD and are between residues 1-220. Moreover, two further residues, Gln335 and Lys337, found in the GyrB-CTD are also involved in ATP binding. To the date, there are hundreds of potential novel inhibitors which have been identified to inhibit the activity of GyrB. Inhibitors could be design to target the ATP-binding site or the non-ATP-binding site, however, little is known about structure of the non-ATP binding site. Novobiocin is the only approved antibiotic which has shown to inhibit the activity of GyrB. However, novobiocin has been withdrawn from the market because it is extremely toxic and has low permeability. Another drug class of drugs, aminobenzimidazole, are another strong candidate for inhibiting GyrB due to their excellent efficacy against MDR-TB strains (Chaudhari et al., 2016).

Tuesday, August 20, 2019

Security Issues Associated With Mobile Commerce Information Technology Essay

Security Issues Associated With Mobile Commerce Information Technology Essay The report investigates the current state of the Mobile-commerce based on its security and examines the predicted future developments of the system. A brief background of the M-commerce and its applications is initially outlined. The discussion will then focus on the security issues and solutions based on the five security objectives (standards): Confidentiality, Authentication, Authorisation, Integrity and Non-repudiation. The applications of these security standards will then be applied on two M-commerce applications, both involving mobile transaction: Mobile-Payment and Mobile-Banking. It is concluded that further technological development in M-commerce system will be required, in order to improve the quality of service and ensure the user that such a system is safe to use. Nestor Mfuamba Introduction The term M-commerce (mobile-commerce) derives from E-commerce (e-commerce) which denotes business transactions over the internet. The transactions could be buying and selling goods/services by accessing the internet. Both M-commerce and E-commerce are part of two districts business markets: B2B (Business to Business) and B2C (Business to Consumer), the two distinct from dealing with business for the first and dealing end consumer for the last. From these business concepts, we can see that a B2B market, is more like E-commerce, where a business / user, accessing the internet for business transactions from an unstated devices. The technology used for this system could either be wireline (home PC, end user devices) or wireless (via mobile phones, PDAs, end user devices). In fact the term M-commerce, is all about a wireless E-commerce that is where a mobile device is used to access the internet for business transactions either in B2B or B2C markets. With the ubiquitous availability of mobile phones (other end user devices), M-commerce services have a promising future, especially in the B2C market. Future development applications include buying over the phone, purchase and redemption of tickets and reward schemes, travel and weather information, and writing contracts on the move. However, the success of M-commerce today, very much depends on the security of the underlying technologies. For example, credit card charges for transactions on the internet are 15%, versus 1% for POS (Point-of-Sales) credit card transactions. The chargeback rates grow to 30% digital product are sold. For M-commerce to take off, fraud rates have to be reduced to an acceptable level. As much security can be regarded as an enabling factor for the success of M-commerce applications. In this report, I discuss the security issues associated with M-commerce and their solutions based on two existing M-commerce applications, namely: Mobile Payment Systems: business transactions on the internet require the payments of either goods or services. M-payment systems have different requirements and characteristics than E-payment systems (electronic-payment). Mobile-Banking Systems: types of execution of financial services in the course of which within an electronic procedure the consumer uses mobile communication techniques in conjunction with mobile devices for banking transactions. M-commerce Definition The term m-commerce can be defined in many ways. From own experience and research, m-commerce is just an electronic commerce system that is accessed from mobile phones. Both e-commerce and m-commerce are B2C (Business to Consumer) systems. According to the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation Development), e-commerce follows two criteria that are: Automation of transaction Spatial separation of transactions and delivery By definition m-commerce is a business commerce system using mobile device for business transactions performed over a mobile telecommunication network, possibly involving the transfer of money. Based on research done by Kalkota Ravi and Robinson Maria, they have actually divided m-commerce into five descriptive phases: Messaging m-commerce (SMS)-based m-commerce) Info connectivity m-commerce (web based m-commerce) Transactions m-commerce (strategy for organisations in order to evolve revenue generating mcommerce) Transformation m-commerce (m-commerce is interconnected and implemented into business processes within and between organisations) Infusion -m-commerce (and m-commerce is a normal way to do business this means a culture change from one, in which technology is occasionally handed over to the other one where technology is an accepted part) Technology and Applications The technology of M-commerce is built on several key technologies. They distinguish by their common uses. Mobile phones have developed gradually, making significant changes to their standards, starting from the first generation (analogue phones) to the third generation (3G): first-generation or analogue phones good for voice calls second-generation phones use digital technology and are typical of the average phone in use today 2.5G digital phones support the transmission of data using general packet radio service (GPRS) third generation (3G) digital phones support voice and data transmission at greatly increased speeds 3G supports services that were not possible with earlier technologies: video calls can be made and received from other 3G users video and other types of media can be downloaded to play on your phone 3G phones often have cameras, so you can take and transmit digital pictures location-based services can be accessed in order to see a map of where you are, or find out the nearest garage, restaurant, bank, etc M-commerce developments are focused very strongly on the use of 3G phone technology. Wireless application protocol (WAP) enables mobile devices to browse the internet because the web browsers built into these devices support hypertext markup language (HTML) and extensible markup language (XML) the key languages used for internet content. WAP-enabled devices run microbrowsers. These are applications that suit the: small screen and small memory size of handheld devices low bandwidths that are a feature of wireless networks for handheld devices Another important m-commerce technology is short message service (SMS), also known as texting. This popular service allows short text messages of up to 160 characters to be sent from and to mobile devices at a low cost. This has a wide application in m-commerce technology. Improvements to the service, such as T9 predictive text to help you type faster, have helped to improve the service, and a number of enhancements such as enhanced messaging (EMS) led to multimedia messaging service (MMS) messaging. With an MMS-enabled phone, you can: take digital photographs and store photographs on the internet send and receive full color pictures add a text message to your picture send and receive voice clips purchase pictures and sounds from the internet have enhanced polyphonic ringtones Mobile Application Types Communications: E-mail Clients IM Clients Mobile Web and Internet Browsers News/Information Clients On-Device Portals (Java Portals) Social Network Clients Games: Puzzle/Strategy (e.g., Tetris, Sudoku, Mah-jong, Chess, Board Games) Cards/Casino (e.g., Solitaire, Blackjack, Roulette, Poker) Action/Adventure (e.g., Doom, Pirates of the Caribbean, Role-Playing Games) Sports (e.g., Football, Soccer, Tennis, Basketball, Racing, Boxing, Skiing) Leisure Sports (e.g., Bowling, Pool, Darts, Fishing, Air Hockey) Multimedia: Graphics/Image Viewers Presentation Viewers Video Players Audio Players Streaming Players (Audio/Video) Productivity: Calendars Calculators Diary Notepad/Memo/Word Processors Spreadsheets Directory Services (e.g., yellow pages) Banking/Finance Travel: City Guides Currency Converters Translators GPS/Maps Itineraries/Schedules Weather Mobile System Architecture The figure bellow shows the architecture of an m-commerce system: from the design, we can clearly see that a user/client access the web via an xml server connected to a database. Figure1. Proposed M-commerce system architecture Mobile devices The applications of M-commerce can be implemented on different kinds of end user devices other than only mobile phones: Mobile phones PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) Smart phone the smart phone combines mobile phone and PDA technology into one device Laptop Earpiece device such as Bluetooth (as part of a Personal Area Network) The choice of devices in M-commerce is mainly based on the device features, and network technology used for transmission, the last allows the bandwidth capacity to vary and influence the kind of services the end user is able to receive. In mobile phones, the technology differs from other end user devices by their ability to have internal smart cards that determine their memory capacities. Nowadays, three solutions exist: Single SIM widely used around the world and confidential user information is stored one smart card. Dual Chip, means two smart cards in one mobile phone, as one used for user authentication to the network operator as the other, is used for value-added services such as m-payment or digital signature. Dual Slot, this type of mobile phones, has a SIM card and card slot for fully-sized external smart card. This solutions consists on using different cards one after the other. e.g. POS and ATM terminals. M-commerce vs. E-commerce This part of the report doesnt compare the two business systems. However, present advantages and disadvantages of M-commerce system over and E-commerce system. As defined in part 1.1., M-commerce is subset of the E-commerce but using end user devices as transaction platforms. The following list summarises, the advantages: Accessibility accessibility is related to ubiquity and means that the end user is accessible anywhere at any time. Accessibility is probably the major advantage by comparison with E-commerce applications involving a wired end user device. Ubiquity the end user device is mobile, that is, the user can access M-commerce applications in real time at any place. Security depending on the specific end user device, the device offers a certain level of inherent security. For example, the SIM card commonly employed in mobile phones is a smart card that stores confidential user information, such as the users secret authentication key. As such, the mobile phone can be regarded as a smart card reader with smart card. Localisation a network operator can localise registered users by using a positioning systems, such as GPS, or via GSM or UMTS network technology, and offer location- dependent services. Those services include local information services about hotels, restaurants, and amenities, travel information, emergency calls, and mobile office facilities. Personalisation mobile devices are usually not shared between users. This makes it possible to adjust a mobile device to the users needs and wishes (starting with the mobile phone housing and ringtones). On the other hand, a mobile operator can offer personalised services to its users, depending on specified user characteristics (e.g. a user may prefer Italian food) and the users location (see above). Convenience the size and weight of mobile devices and their ubiquity and accessibility makes them an ideal tool for performing personal tasks. Along with these advantages, we also have disadvantages, the following list summarises, the facts: Mobile devices offer limited capabilities between mobile devices these capabilities vary so much that end user services will need to be customised accordingly. The heterogeneity of devices, operating systems, and network technologies is a challenge for a uniform end user platform. For this reason, standardisation bodies consisting of telecommunication companies, device manufacturers, and value-added service providers integrate their work (see Section 4.5). For example, many current mobile devices implement an IP stack to provide standard network connectivity. At the application level, the Java 2 Micro Edition (J2ME) offers a standardized application platform for heterogeneous devices. Mobile devices are more prone to theft and destruction. According to a government report, more than 700000 mobile phones are stolen in the UK each year [12]. Since mobile phones are highly personalised and contain confidential user information, they need to be protected according to the highest security standards. The communication over the air interface between mobile device and network introduces additional security threats (e.g. eavesdropping, winds etc †¦). Security Concept and Challenges The concept of security in M-commerce is the most important aspect of a business that a mobile-system should respond to. There is no need to implement, such system without securing its environment, especially where transactions involve monetary value. Different views from participants in an M-commerce scenario, percept, security and privacy as major factors for markets breakthrough of the according system. Moving from participants point of views, I have defined five security objectives / standards that a system should respond to: Confidentiality: ensure privacy, the content of the transaction cannot be viewed by unauthorised persons and enables encryption. Authentication: ensure that the content of the transaction originates from the presumed sender/partner. Integrity: ensure that the content of transaction is not modified during the delivery and cannot be altered at any time. The technique used is called digital signatures. Authorisation: ensure that anyone involved in the transaction must be recognize and verified in order to authorize/allow the transaction to take place. It is more like digital certificates. Non-repudiation: no-one should be able to claim that any transaction on his/her behalf was made without their knowledge. The concept of digital signatures is applied. This standards dont just apply to end user devices, but to the whole systems involving device users, network (e.g. WAP, WEP), financial and administrative institutions (e.g. banks, governments etc.). I have identified, few security challenges related to the system: The mobile device confidential user data on the mobile device as well as the device itself should be protected from unauthorised use. The security mechanisms employed here include user authentication (e.g. PIN or password authentication), secure storage of confidential data (e.g. SIM card in mobile phones) and security of the operating system. The radio interface access to a telecommunication network requires the protection of transmitted data in terms of confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity. In particular, the users personal data should be protected from eavesdropping. Different security mechanisms for different mobile network technologies (i.e. in 2G, 3G, and other systems) were explained in part 2.2 The network operator infrastructure security mechanisms for the end user often terminate in the access network. This raises questions regarding the security of the users data within and beyond the access network. Moreover, the user receives certain services for which he/she has to pay. This often involves the network operator and he/she will want to be assured about correct charging and billing. The kind of M-commerce application m-commerce applications, especially those involving payment, need to be secured to assure customers, merchants, and network operators. For example, in a payment scenario both sides will want to authenticate each other before committing to a payment. Also, the customer will want assurance about the delivery of goods or services. In addition to the authenticity, confidentiality and integrity of sent payment information, non-repudiation is important. Threats scenarios In this part, I am going to present major threats to security based on the M-commerce security standards and address ideal scenarios, observed during each methods. The following list shows the threats: Money thefts: as long as, m-commerce involves transaction, driven by monetary values. The system will always attract hackers, crackers and anyone with the knowledge of exploiting and abusing the system. They often set fake websites, in order to extract customers personal data, credit card details etc. Threats to the system: mobile devices are not spared from those deceptive methods of stealing information. Viruses, Trojans, Worms are often planted by individuals for reasons known best to them alone, in order to compromise the credibility of all m-commerce system. Threats observed during authentication: Observation: An adversary can download the client on a laptop/desktop and use its insecurities for malicious purposes. An adversary can obtain the user credentials stored on the mobile phone by transferring the contents to pc/laptop from the phone or memory card. An adversary can register with valid details of a valid bank account holder and access his/her account details or make transactions. An adversary can access user credentials directly from the phones folders or from phones memory card. An adversary can obtain the new PIN for transacting using the weak forgot password feature or an adversary can change the password/PIN of a valid user without authentication/authorization. An adversary can use the auto-complete feature to access a valid users account. An adversary can guess weak passwords/PIN to retrieve customer information. Ideal scenario: An adversary can download the client on laptop/desktop and use its insecurities for malicious purposes. An adversary can use the auto-complete feature to access a valid users account. The customer has to first register with the bank. Customer details like full name, postal address, e-mail address, bank account details and mobile phone number should be provided. The bank would inform the vendor to push the mobile client application to the mobile number provided by the customer. This can be done through a system which communicates between the server at vendor end and bank end. The vendor enters the mobile number of the customer and the client application is pushed to it. This ensures that the client is not downloaded to a pc or laptop and misused. In case the push is not possible, the customer has to be informed and the client application installed by the vendor. The application has to ensure that during installation a few checks are done Transfer the banks and vendors public key for encryption purposes. There can be two keys generated for the vendor; one for storage and one for data transmission. The client files/folders are installed on the phone and not in the memory card. The files and folders should be restricted from being transferred to a memory card or pc/laptop. The access to these files should only be through the executable and not directly. The installer should be removed after installation. Application should not allow auto-complete feature. Threats observed during transactions Observation: Based on the services provided to the customer the following threats can be observed: An adversary can sniff the contents of transaction and obtain confidential information. An adversary can bypass authentication controls. An adversary can make bogus shopping or purchase transactions for another valid customer. An adversary can view the account details of another user. An adversary can modify the from account and amount field during a fund transfer process. An adversary can predict the session id and perform transactions as a valid user. An adversary can access a valid account using an active session which has not been terminated after a long time of inactivity. An adversary can login using his credentials and view/modify the details of another valid customer. Illegal/Invalid transactions can be performed without continuous authentication process for each transaction. Ideal scenario An adversary can sniff the contents of transaction and obtain confidential information. All transactions should be through a secured connection. Data transmitted between the client application and the vendor server should be through HTTPS or another secured channel and also encrypted through the vendors transport public key. The data flowing back from vendor sever to the client should be through HTTPS or a secured channel. The data flowing between the vendor server and bank server should be through HTTPS. Also the customer details, which are not required by the vendor, should be encrypted using the banks public key. The return should be through HTTPS. Any data flowing between bank/vendor to other third parties or merchants like for mobile shopping should be through a secured payment gateway. An adversary can bypass authentication controls, Illegal/Invalid transactions can be performed without continuous authentication process for each transaction and view the account details of another user. Each transaction or operation should be authenticated either using a single layer or a dual layer. The vendor side application should authenticate the customer using the PIN for non-critical operations. Validation checks should be in place to ensure that this authentication control is not bypassed. For critical transactions, there can be dual authentication mechanism, one using the PIN at the vendor and other using the Internet banking ID at the bank side. Validation checks should be in place to ensure that this authentication control is not bypassed. An adversary can make bogus shopping or purchase transactions for another valid customer. An adversary can modify the from account and amount field during a fund transfer process. For example, in a fund transfer operation the bank should ask for the Internet banking credentials from the customer for authentication and verification. Also checks need to be in place to ensure that the from account field cannot be modified or the amount field is not negative. An adversary can predict the session id and perform transactions as a valid user. For example, an adversary can access a valid account using an active session which has not been terminated after a long time of inactivity and login using his credentials and view/modify the details of another valid customer.In mobile shopping operation, the payment should be through a secured payment gateway. Ideally, the vendor should not store the details of the shopping done by the customer. In case the vendor performs the payment for the customer for his/her purchases, then only the details need to be stored at the vendor. Then the customer authorizes the bank to transfer the amount to the vendors account for making the payment to the merchant for his/her item. Having a good session management mechanism ensures that attackers dont use a valid session id for login purposes. Also the application should ensure that users are not able to change the data and view another customers details. Other possible threats: An adversary can upload malicious files to the server/application. Ideally, a mobile banking scenario would not require a customer to upload files to the server. Hence the same can be disabled for customers. An adversary can obtain the confidential customer data and source code from the server. All customer data and application source code at the vendor server should be protected not only from the outside attackers, but from internal users/developers also. Malicious activities are undetected. Audit trails and logging need to be maintained for the application which mentions the customer name, bank details and transaction performed with time and date for future reference. An adversary can obtain the details of the server or error messages provide information for the adversary to perform specific attacks. The application should ensure no messages are provided to the outside world which would reveal information about the system. An adversary can obtain the vendor private key from the server to perform man-in-the-middle attacks. The private keys should be stored securely and access should only be given to the application to use the keys during any kind of operations. Security Technology This part of my report focuses on the network technologies, which are relevant to a secure M-commerce system. The security itself focuses on three aspects, studied in the IST SHAMAN project: M-commerce network security, Transport layer security and Service security. The IST SHAMAN has studied the security architecture of current and potential future mobile systems. Here, they are discussed: M-commerce Network Security GSM (General System for Mobile Communication): established in the early 1990s, the GSM is the first generation mobile phones and major device for M-commerce. The devices presented strong limitations with respect to their capabilities other than telephony. In term of data service, the dial-in data sessions over circuit switched connections were possible but relatively slow, at 9, 6 Kbits/s and required a separate device such a computer, which reduced its mobility. As the GSM core network extended, a number of data services where established such as: The Short Message Service (SMS) The Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) allowing internet access The High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD) providing higher data rates The General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) extends GSM with packet oriented services The figure, below shows an architecture of GSM, including GPRS, IN (Intelligent Network) and SMS. Figure 2: GSM Architecture What is the scenario in this architecture and what does the GSM provides as security features? The mobile station communicates over the wireless interface with a base transceiver station (BTS) which is part of a base station subsystem (BSS). The base station controller (BSC) is connected with a MSC (Mobile Switching Centre) and a SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node). The latter two are the central switching components for circuit and packet switched data. When a customer subscribes, the GSM home network assigns the mobile station a unique identifier, the international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI), and an authentication key Ki. The IMSI and the secret authentication key Ki of the mobile station (MS) are stored in the SIM (subscriber identity module), which is assumed to be tamper proof. On the network side, the IMSI, Ki and other information are stored in the HLR (Home Location Register) and AuC (Authentication Centre). GSM provides the following security features for the link between the mobile station and the network: †¢ IMSI confidentiality †¢ IMSI authentication †¢ User data confidentiality on physical connections †¢ Connectionless user data confidentiality †¢ Signaling information element confidentiality In general, the security architecture of GSM, presents basic security mechanisms for M-commerce systems. The authentication towards the network, from a mobile customer is based on a secret ki that will derive to a symmetric key, used to encrypt the link between the mobile station and the BTS. The secret key ki is never sent over the network. From there, we can say that GSM presents two weaknesses, Authentication and Encryption as it is optional. UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System): the security architecture of UMTS is designed to fix the security weaknesses of GMS. In UMTS, authentication is mutual, and encryption is mandatory unless the mobile station and the network agree on an unciphered connection. In addition, integrity protection is always mandatory and protects against replay or modification of signaling messages. UMTS introduces new cipher algorithms and longer encryption keys. Thus, UMTS doesnt seem to have any security weaknesses. The architecture of this technology is depicted below: Figure 3  : UTRAN system WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network): The IEEE standard 802.11 specifies families of WLANs which operate in the unlicensed 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz band. The standards specify the physical layer (PHY) and the medium access control layer (MAC). When operated in the infrastructure mode, the mobile station attaches to an AP which provides connectivity to fixed net IP networks (e.g. the internet) or to other mobile stations. While, in the default mode, WLAN is not secured, this means: there is a possibility of an eavesdrop attack. In order to provide a measure of security, the IEEE and IETF, have defined the WEP (Wireless Equivalent Privacy) and the VPN (Virtual Privacy Network). WEP was designed to provide: Authentication to protect the association to an AP Integrity protection on MAC frames Confidentiality on MAC frames In comparison to other network technologies, the WEP is insecure. Based on its secret key, that serves as input for the RC4 stream cipher, the authentication and integrity protection is completely insecure and encryption at least partly insecure. There is a possibility for an attacker to intercept a single successful authentication transaction between a mobile station and the AP and be able to authenticate without knowing the secret keys. Furthermore, since a CRC checksum is used for integrity protection, an attacker can modify the data and adapt the checksum accordingly. For example, if the position of commercially sensitive information (e.g. an amount) within a datagram is known, the corresponding bits can be ex-ored with any value. With a large number of intercepted frames, the WEP keys can even be recovered, breaking the encryption. Furthermore, since the WEP keys are network keys, preserving their secrecy is difficult for private networks and impossible for public WLAN hotspots. In recent work of the IEEE Task group on security (TgI), the new security standard IEEE 802.1X has been adopted. 802.1X is a framework for authentication and key management which employs the Extensible Authentication Protocol for a variety of authentication mechanisms, e.g. certificate based TLS. But the weaknesses of WEP cannot be remedied by the new authentication and key management schemes in 802.1X. The IEEE is currently working towards a new standard (WEP2), and a number of proposals are in circulation. VPN: the technology is employ to particular IPsec, in order to establish network layer security. The IPsec protocol (or more specifically the ESP Tunnel protocol) is an internet s

Monday, August 19, 2019

Philosophy of Science Essay -- Informative, Scientific Method

Background In the modern technological and highly specialized world scientists are seldom aware of the work of philosophers; it is practically unparalleled to find them queuing up, as they have done in Popper's case, to swear to the great practical beneficial influence which that philosophical work has had upon their own (1). In his paper he started by the following â€Å"The problem which troubled me at the time was neither, 'When is a theory true?' nor, 'When is a theory acceptable?' My problem was different I wished to distinguish between science and pseudo-science; knowing very well that science often errs, and that pseudo-science may happen to stumble on the truth† (2) Karl considers the empirical method of observations ensued by test or series of tests to approve a theory, and analysis of the results (empirical method) is not acceptable. As an alternative he recommended the following â€Å"I often formulated my problem as one of distinguishing between a genuinely empirical method and a non-empirical or even a pseudo-empirical method--that is to say, a method which, although it appeals to observation and experiment† (2) He established that the main problem in the philosophy of science is that of demarcation, i.e., (distinguishing between science and what he terms 'non-science). Karl popper summarized his ideas in seven points as followed: 1. It is easy to obtain confirmations, or verification, for nearly every theory-if we look for confirmations. 2. Confirmations should count only if they are the result of risky predictions 3. Every 'good' scientific theory is a prohibition: it forbids certain things to happen. 4. A theory which is not refutable by any conceivable event is non scientific. 5. Every g... ...ns no observation is free from the possibility of error. 6- Karl popper considered that scientific logic is deductive logic. so all scientific theories are tested by trying to falsify them. In order to do this, scientists deduce predictions from theories and if the predictions prove to be false, then deductive logic dictates that the theory is false. If the predictions prove to be true, then the theory is not proven true, simply this means that is corroboration to this theory. 7-last one (conventionalist twist) or a’ conventionalist stratagem'.)these words created to explain the trying some admirers of some theories to rescue the theory from refutation tried to save their theory, By introducing some auxiliary assumption, or by re-interpreting the theory in this way that it escapes refutation, but they destroyed or at least lowered, its scientific status (2).

Eulogy for Daughter :: Eulogies Eulogy

Eulogy for Daughter My Dear Charity, Where do I start?   How do I begin a farewell when I still can't believe you're gone?   How do I say goodbye to a part of my soul? The day you were born I felt this indescribable love.   One I had never known before.   From the beginning of your life I never knew I could have a love that was so strong.   When you were an infant I told people how great you were and they said, "Yeah, but wait until she is two."   When you were two I told people how great you were and they said, "Yeah, but wait until she is ten."   When you were ten I told people how great you were and they said, "Yeah, but just wait until she is 16."   And now you are 16 and I am telling people how great you are. You came into my life and changed me forever.   Over the years people have complimented me for being a good mother but I can't take credit for that.   You were born good and you were the one who was often teaching me.   I believe you are an angel God sent to teach me.   You taught me love.   You taught me honesty.   You taught me how to forgive and how to be strong.   You are the strongest person I have ever known and you gave me strength when I was weak.   When times were sad and tough I looked to you for strength.   You taught me how to be myself.   Most of all you taught me about life and how to live. When you got sick and the doctors told me I should hold you back you taught me it was more important to feel and grow like any other child than to have me hide you under my wing.    It was more important to live.   And that you did.   You danced so beautifully, for years.   And then your greatest joy, cheerleading.   You made me so proud.   You have always been my greatest pride and joy.   I'm not sure how I can live this life without you.   Remember when you would cry and tell me you were so afraid because you didn't want me to die before you.   And I would tell you I wasn't going to die.   And remember me saying you couldn't die before me, so we agreed, we had to go at the same time because neither of us could live without the other.

Sunday, August 18, 2019

Essay on Euthanasia and Doctor-Assisted Suicide -- Euthanasia Physicia

Understanding Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide    This paper will address some of the more popular points of interest involved with the euthanasia-assisted suicide discussion. There are less than a dozen questions which would come to mind in the case of the average individual who has a mild interest in this debate, and the following essay presents information which would satisfy that individual's curiosity on these points of common interest.    Euthanasia and assisted suicide are legal in the state of Oregon and in the country of the Netherlands; these are the only two jurisdictions in the world where laws specifically permit euthanasia or assisted suicide. Oregon permits assisted suicide.(Oregon) The Netherlands permits both euthanasia and assisted suicide.(Review) In 1995 Australia's Northern Territory approved a euthanasia bill.(Rights) It went into effect in 1996 but was overturned by the Australian Parliament in 1997. Also, in 1997, Colombia's Supreme Court ruled that penalties for mercy killing should be removed.(Republic) However the ruling does not go into effect until guidelines, still to be drafted, are approved by the Colombian Congress.    The difference between euthanasia and assisted suicide is seen this way: One way to distinguish them is to look at the last act - the act without which death would not occur. Using this distinction, if a third party performs the last act that intentionally causes a patient's death, euthanasia has occurred. For example, giving a patient a lethal injection or putting a plastic bag over her head to suffocate her would be considered euthanasia. On the other hand, if the person who dies performs the last act, assisted suicide has taken place. Thus it would be assisted suicid... ...1 Medscape. Available at http://www.medscape.com/Medscape/psychiatry/clinicalMgmt/CM.v03/pnt-CM.v03.html, citing Jamison K.R., Night Falls Fast, New York, NY: Alfred Knopf; 1999. Accessed 3/19/01. Oregon's "Death with Dignity Act" (ORS 127.800-897) passed in November 1994 and went into effect in 1997. Republic of Colombia Constitutional Court, Sentence # c-239/97, Ref. Expedient # D-1490, May 20, 1997. "Review of cases of termination of life on request and assistance with suicide" was approved in April 2001. "Rights of the Terminally Ill Act," Northern Territory of Australia (1996). Wanzer,Sidney H. M.D. et al., "The Physician's Responsibility toward Hopelessly Ill Patients: A Second Look," 320 The New England Journal of Medicine (March 30, 1989), p. 848. Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, Second edition (1976).

Saturday, August 17, 2019

National Airspace System

MGMT 203 Management for Aeronautical Science Manager’s Perspective Paper – The National Airspace System (NAS) March 16, 2013 Prepared for Dr. Daniel Nation Lecturer Prepared by Ong Wei Jian Lionel Introduction In this report, we will be looking at the National Airspace System (NAS). We will be taking an in depth look at the overview and the infrastructure of the NAS, discuss about the FAA Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen), and also examine the future needs of the National Airspace System.Overview of the NAS The National Airspace System is defined as a complex combination of systems, procedures, facilities, aircraft, and personnel which work together as one system to ensure safe and efficient air travel in the United States. The NAS consists of several components, and these include: †¢ NAS Operational Facilities (unstaffed) †¢ Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC) †¢ Air Traffic Control Towers (ATCT) †¢ Ground Radios and Radar Sy stems †¢ Airports †¢ Aircrafts (commercial, private, and military) Airline Personnel (operating, maintaining, and modernizing the system) †¢ Passengers (commercial and military) Infrastructure of the NAS The NAS helps to maintain a safe and efficient flight over the US airspace by allowing all control towers, control centers, radios, radars, and many airports to be interconnected to one another to form a NAS operational communications network. This NAS communications network helps pilots to communicate with air traffic controllers and airline operation centers to ensure a safe flight as they travel over the airspace.There are a three systems that make up the NAS, and these include the Digital Airport Surveillance Radar (DASR) System, the Voice Communication Switching System (VCSS), and the Department of Defense (DoD) Advanced Automation System, or DAAS for short. The DASR System is a traffic air control radar system that helps to detect aircraft position and weather c onditions in the vicinity of civilian and military airfields. It consists of two main electronic subsystems: the primary surveillance radar and the secondary surveillance radar, which make use of electromagnetic waves reflected off aircraft to monitor their positions.The VCSS is the communications system used to manage the voice communications of any Air Traffic Control (ATC) facility. The VCSS must be able to support all analog and digital communications between the DoD, the ATC facilities, and the pilots. The DAAS is a system that is used to retrieve and process radar data, flight plans, and weather / airport environmental data to support DoD ATC services. The system transmits part or all of this processed data to a display or workstation (within geographical proximity) for air traffic controllers to access in order for them to control and monitor the activities in the airspace.FAA NextGen Air Transportation System The NextGen program is an initiative developed by the Federal Avia tion Administration (FAA) to help improve the efficiency, convenience and dependability of the NAS. The NextGen modernization of the U. S. air traffic system seeks to increase the efficiency of the NAS through technological advancements; and as well as improved approaches and procedures. The NextGen program plans to make use of satellite navigation, which will allow pilots to know the precise locations of other airplanes around them and enhance the overall safety of air travel.Airports are now already benefitting from the NextGen program. These new capabilities include the national rollout of a network of Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) ground transceivers. These transceivers will receive GPS position reports from aircraft equipped with ADS-B Out (an upgrade required by 2020 for aircraft flying in most controlled airspace); and by 2013, these transceivers will be installed to provide nationwide coverage. Air traffic data such as Traffic Information Service-Broadca st (TIS-B) and Flight Information Service-Broadcast (FIS-B) will be transmitted by the ADS-B transceivers.The FAA also tested a newly automated Collaborative Departure Queue Management (CDQM) system that aims to help airports improve departure management. The FAA is also putting in place tools that will enable airport operators, airlines, and other NAS users better access to shared surface surveillance data, which is vital for safe and efficient airport operations. The Future Needs of the NAS The current features of the NAS unfortunately, are not sufficient to guarantee efficient or uninterrupted operation in the future.The greater interconnectivity of systems brought about by the NextGen program means that the cyber risks to the NAS are also increased. The future cyber security needs of the NAS require a change in both the NAS infrastructure and safety culture in order to be effective against increased the potential cyber risks that will follow. Improved cyber security requires cha nges to the present NAS safety provisions. More safety reviews for continual monitoring is needed. Actions and responsibilities of each and every NAS staff now have to be carefully scrutinized and taken into consideration.Responsibilities of system administrators and network operators have to be expanded, from maintaining the performance of the system to detecting intrusive actions. Improved cyber security also requires changes to the current NAS infrastructure. Data provided by external partners and actions requested by external partners have to be made sure that they are not malicious in intent. The existing cyber security architecture also has to be modified and upgraded accordingly to counteract the changing cyber threats, all in a short timeframe; whilst not compromising on the operations of the NAS during these infrastructure changes and modifications.References †¢ NextGen for Airports. Retrieved March 15, 2013 from the Federal Aviation Administration website: http://www. faa. gov/nextgen/qanda/airports/ †¢ What is NextGen? Retrieved March 15, 2013 from the Federal Aviation Administration website: http://www. faa. gov/nextgen/slides/? slide=1 †¢ Houston, Sarina (n. d. ). The National Airspace System Explained. Retrieved March 15, 2013 from website: http://aviation. about. com/od/Air-Traffic-Control/a/The-National-Airspace-System-Explained. htm Wadas, Burt (n. d. ). National Airspace System (NAS) Overview. Retrieved March 16, 2013 from Armed Forces Communication and Electronics Association (AFCEA) website: http://www. afceaboston. com/documents/events/cnsatm2011/Briefs/01-Monday/07-Wadas-HBAG%20NationalAirspaceSystemOverview. pdf †¢ Williams, James H. (February 2011). National Airspace System Security Cyber Architecture. Retrieved March 16, 2013 from The Mitre Corporation website: http://www. mitre. org/work/tech_papers/2011/10_4169/10_4169. pdf